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of them of high economic value. These same vision of goods and services. In addition, the 12 years (JIMÉNEZ -MUÑOZ et al., 2016). have shown that this equatorial mode inter-
temperature changes have also caused sig- following are expected: loss of land, loss/ The same El Niño event of 2015-16 wors- acts with ENSO through atmospheric tele-
nificant changes in the natural variability relocation of cultural and historical sites, ened the long period of droughts of 2012- connections (RODRIGUEZ-FONSECA et al.,
of the climate of adjacent continental re- agricultural losses, salinization of vegetation 2016 in Northeast Brazil (MARENGO et al., 2009; KEENLYSIDE et al., 2013). It is indicat-
gions, with sea level rise, the increased in- and aquatic resources, erosion/progradation 2018). About 33 million people were affect- ed that Atlantic Niño (ATL3 index: calculated
tensity and frequency of occurrence of heat of beaches, alteration of fish stocks, dam- ed by droughts in Northeast Brazil, causing from SST anomalies in the region 3°N-3°S,
waves and extreme precipitation events age to port, urban and tourist infrastructure an estimated economic loss of US$ 26 billion 20°W-0°) is negatively correlated with
and storms, with resulting damage to the and exposure /damage of exposed or buried (CAI et al., 2020). In the Brazilian state of ENSO in the Pacific (Niño3 index: calculated
life and health of populations, in addition ducts. With the prediction of sea level rise, Santa Catarina, the damages related to the from TSM anomalies in the region 5°N-5°S,
to high economic losses resulting from the an increase in demand for coastal protection floods caused by the El Niño of 1982-83 re- 150°W-90°W), with the Atlantic leading the
destruction of infrastructure. structures is expected, which implies addi- sulted in more than 200,000 homeless, 65 Pacific for more than 3 months. Positive SST
With respect to sea level rise, urban coast- tional expenses and, often, the suppression deaths and/or missing, and an economic loss anomalies (warmer than normal waters) in
al regions are the most vulnerable, with real of the beach environment. of more than US$ 1.1 billion (TACHINI, 2010). the equatorial Atlantic in summer are asso-
possibilities of flooding in the medium and In this chapter, we will discuss, using con- In the Atlantic Ocean, the inter-hemi- ciated with negative SST anomalies (cooler
long term, if current rates of sea level rise crete examples, the state of the art of un- spheric mode is the main mode of variabil- than normal waters) in the eastern equa-
are maintained. Coastal resources have been derstanding some of the main geophysical ity that influences the climate of the Brazil- torial Pacific several months later (LOSA-
systematically affected, with changes in the phenomena associated with climate change ian Northeast. The interhemispheric mode DA and RODRÍGUEZ-FONSECA, 2016; CAI
physical, biological, and morphological char- that have important consequences on the is characterized by a meridional gradient of et al., 2019). Studies have shown that this
acteristics of oceans and coasts, changes in ocean and climate, and consequently on the sea surface temperature (SST) between the connection was strong during the first and
their ecological structure, functions and pro- different sectors of the country’s economy. northern and southern hemispheres (Ser- last decades of the 20th century and weak
vain, 1991). A positive north-south gradi- between these periods (MARTÍN-REY et al.,
2. Extreme precipitation events and subtropical cyclones ent, characterized by warmer sea surface 2015; LÜBBECKE et al., 2018).
temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere In addition to the summer Atlantic Niño,
2.1. Ocean-atmosphere tele- phase), characterized by warmer than nor- than in the Southern Hemisphere, is associ- the equatorial Atlantic is characterized by a
connections and climate variability mal sea surface temperatures in the eastern ated with a dry year in northern Northeast- second equatorial mode in the boreal win-
part of the Pacific, northern South America ern Brazil, mainly in February-May (NOBRE ter (termed the winter Atlantic Niño), which
The continental climate is strongly linked experiences dry events, while the southeast and SHUKLA, 1996). On the other hand, is weaker than the summer Atlantic Niño.
to oceanic variability, especially in tropical of the region experiences wet events. (RAO a negative phase of the inter-hemispheric Hounsou-Gbo et al. (2020) investigated
regions. In South America, the climate is sig- and HADA, 1990; GRIMM et al., 2000). The gradient is associated with more precipita- the influence of the winter Atlantic Niño
nificantly influenced by the variability of the reverse occurs during the La Niña years (cold tion in the northern part of Northeast Brazil on ENSO and its implications for the South
tropical Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The El ENSO phase). The socio-economic and en- in the boreal spring. The equatorial or At- American climate variability for the period
Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenome- vironmental impacts of El Niño/La Niña on lantic Niño mode, which is a mode of vari- 1905-2014. The results indicate that the
non is a mechanism of interaction between South America include fishing activities, ability similar to the El Niño of the Pacific, winter Atlantic Niño is also negatively relat-
the ocean and the atmosphere that occurs in agriculture, droughts, floods, and the oc- but with smaller extent and impacts, is the ed to ENSO, with the Atlantic leading the
the tropical Pacific Ocean. El Niño/La Niña oc- currence of some diseases. It was estimated second mode of variability in the tropical Pacific for 2-3 seasons. This winter Atlantic
currences, which are associated with chang- that severe droughts, caused by the strong Atlantic. The positive (negative) phase of Niño is associated with an early develop-
es in temperature and atmospheric circula- El Niño event of 2015-16, combined with the Atlantic Niño is characterized by warm- ment of ENSO from the northern summer,
tion in the Pacific, influence precipitation on rising temperatures due to global warm- er (colder) waters than normal in the east- with a notable multidecadal modulation
global scales through teleconnection mech- ing, increased the incidence of fires in the ern part of the equatorial Atlantic, mainly of the time delay from the Pacific over the
anisms. During El Niño years (warm ENSO Amazon by 36% compared to the previous in the northern summer. Previous studies Atlantic. In the mid-20th century, when

398 BLUE ECONOMY Ocean and Climate: New Challenges 399