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of marine resources, pollution, rise in tem- 3.6. Blue economy in Europe, with special emphasis on the EU change” is no less important, with the
perature and sea levels, ocean acidification and the Mediterranean Sea (LAVIDAS; DE following terms: marine protected areas,
and loss of biodiversity (Ibid., p. 3). Finally, the concept of “blue economy” LEO; BESIO, 2020; DA-ROCHA; GUILLEN; UNCLOS, fisheries, aquaculture and eco-
In the case of the USA, for example, the seems to be the broadest one, as it is re- PRELLEZO, 2019). system services. Here, the close relationship
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- lated not only to the economic approach It is important to analyze the “climate between climate change and the need to
tration (NOAA) defines the ocean economy to the subject, but also to the concepts change” node that emerges from the anal- deal with the governance agreements re-
as composed of six economic sectors that already presented. Thus, it can be under- ysis (see Figure 5), highly associated and lated to the topic becomes even clearer, as
depend totally or partially on the oceans stood as an “umbrella concept”, directly close to the “ocean governance”, “blue well as the need to face more immediate
and/or the Great Lakes (being a subset of considering agendas such as maritime se- economy”, and “blue growth” nodes. The challenges arising from climate change in
the Coastal Economy), contemplating the curity (VOYER et al., 2018), sustainability term is directly linked to governance, bio- the marine environment. Thus, although it
following sectors: living resources; maritime (GERHARDINGER et al., 2020), maritime diversity, ocean and politics, which high- is used by different authors, the term “sus-
transport; construction of ships and boats; spatial planning (HASSAN; ASHARF, 2019), lights the relevance of the climate issue in tainable blue economy” ends up being al-
shipbuilding; offshore mineral resources; and SDGs (LUENGO FRADES et al., 2020). the current policy/governance for the seas most a repetition of ideas from the use of
and tourism and recreation. US Ocean Econ- Precisely because of its general nature, it is and ocean. The secondary link to “climate different terms.
omy statistics are used to describe the eco- the concept that has been used the most
nomic value of activities directly related to to address issues related to the seas and 4. Conclusion
the use of, or access to, ocean resources. ocean agenda – since it is not limited to a
particular theoretical-methodological eco- In line with Santos and Carvalho change, sustainable development, sustain-
3.5. Coastal economy nomic approach. The EU uses the concept (2020a), Ido and Shimrit (2015) and Arieff ability, marine spatial planning, aquaculture
of a sustainable blue economy to clearly (2008) and Seele (2007), it is now possible and fisheries seems to be closely related to
According to NOAA (USA), the coastal demarcate the concept’s close relationship to argue that “blue is the new green”. The the implementation of the 2030 Agenda
economy is composed of all economic sec- with sustainability. growth of the debate based on the num- (2016-2030), its 17 ODS (SDGs – Sustain-
tors and activity that develops in the geo- In line with the blue economy, since ber of publications, diversity of approaches able Development Goals), as well as the
graphical area defined as “Coastal Shoreline it is integral, the concept of “ocean gov- and expansion of the agenda is evidenced Ocean Decade (2021-2030).
Counties”. Coastal Economy statistics are ernance” is more directly related to man- based on bibliometric research and a liter- Regarding conceptual discussions, the
used when discussing the economy and pop- agement (marine spatial planning, coastal ature review. There is an expressive con- occurrence of different keywords intro-
ulation that benefits directly or indirectly from management and ecosystem approach) centration of publications in the most cited duced in bibliometric research as the main
activity in the coastal zone, as the coastal and its different stakeholders (law of the countries, in the most relevant countries, in nodes of analysis justifies this type of anal-
economy identifies what is at risk of changing sea and the Convention on United Nations the journals that publish the most on the ysis, since each concept has a particularly
from environmental conditions in the ocean on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). However, topic and in authorship. However, It should associated agenda. Based on the cross-anal-
and along from the back. According to the due to its broader nature, it is also relat- be noted, that, due to the criteria of bib- ysis of trend topics with conceptual analysis,
Ocean Conservancy, nearly 40% of the USA ed to the concepts of “blue growth” and liometric research, linguistic and indexing it was possible to identify that the discussion
population lives on the coast, and in addition “blue economy” (EHLERS, 2016). The con- issues can compromise the more general on the economic perspective of the seas and
to supporting millions of jobs and livelihoods, cept of “blue growth” is closely linked to perception of publications in the area. ocean starts very focused on management
coastal states contribute more than US$16 activities related to the exploration of the The exponential growth of the term and planning, often analyzing the USA
trillion to the country’s economy. seas and ocean, such as fisheries, aqua- “ocean governance” (1999-2018) stands (1990). However, in the 21st century, this
Thus, this concept has a more direct re- culture and ecosystem services, directly out, being replaced since 2015 (and espe- discussion has expanded, so that, in the
lationship with the spatial issue. Thereby, linked to sustainable development (CHEN; cially from 2018) by “blue economy”. Fur- first decade, it focuses on the “maritime
it includes all activities carried out, directly ZHOU, 2020). Furthermore, there is a par- thermore, the close relationship between economics” (first half of the 2000s), start-
and indirectly, in the coastal. ticular relevance to this issue of “growth” the increasing frequency of the term climate ing to address new regions.

50 BLUE ECONOMY Economy and the Sea: Concepts and Definitions 51