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field of science diplomacy was born with often used to justify political ends (NYE,
the goal to understand the dynamics be- 2017; POLEJACK, 2021). Thus, it is import-
tween the different imperatives of science ant to understand the dynamics between
and policy at the international level. science and diplomacy in ocean affairs.
Countries like Brazil, with some level
What is science diplomacy? of ocean science capabilities, but still far
from the necessary standards to research
Science diplomacy is a recent field of a continent-wide ocean zone, still depend
research, but an old practice (TUREKIAN, upon foreign analytical capacities (POLE-
2018), dealing with the processes in which JACK; BARROS-PLATIAU, 2020). However,
scientific evidence influences diplomacy our geographical position, our excellence
and vice versa. Highly controversial, the in knowledge production and the rich so-
concept of science diplomacy involves the cial and cultural diversity are important as-
study of how science can inform interna- sets that go beyond our scientific capacity.
tional decision-making, how diplomacy can Consequently, Brazil became the focus of
promote and foster joint research projects, interest of those interested in the South
and how such projects and communities Atlantic. Strategically applying ocean sci-
of researchers can alleviate political ten- ence diplomacy, Brazil has the chance to
sions (THE ROYAL SOCIETY, 2010). More organize its science and technology system
recently, there has been an attempt to in- in a way of better promotion equitable in-
clude in the concept the role that interests ternational cooperative frameworks that
(national, regional, and global) would have meet our national demands. Thus, science
in the different motivations for engaging in diplomacy can become a powerful tool for
science diplomacy practices (GLUCKMAN; negotiating better bilateral and multilater-
TUREKIAN; GRIMES, 2018). It is undeni- al agreements and for demanding the im-
able, however, that science is increasingly plementation of the legal provisions from
playing an important role in international the various multilateral instruments that
environmental debates. instrument ocean governance (POLEJACK;
In the ocean, the influence of science COELHO, 2021).
has become critical, particularly during the
negotiations for the adoption of the Unit- Why is cooperation important?
ed Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, or the constitution of the ocean (ROB- Debates on ocean global governance
INSON, 2020). Since the adoption of the were included amongst the main topics
Convention, science has acted as a form debated at the United Nations Conference
of soft power in ocean negotiations, that on Sustainable Development – Rio+20
is, a form of non-coercive power by which and has since been gaining ground in the
countries seduce other countries to adopt international arena. Through the 2030
positions and values based on the science Agenda and in particular the Sustainable
presented in international negotiations, Development Goal 14 (Life Below Wa-
140 BLUE ECONOMY
ter), relevant indicators were established trust the information. In this context, re-
to maintain the health of the ocean and gimes that are developed through a social
coastal areas. Concurrently, the United learning process and whose rules reflect
Nations launched the Decade of Ocean the scientific consensus on environmental
Science for Sustainable Development (also sustainability tend to be more effective.
known as the Ocean Decade) (2021-2030) Considering international cooperation
to support scientific efforts to reverse the as a factor of success, a question remains
trend of ocean degradation by ascertain an on which well established State practices
interdisciplinary science fit-for-purpose in concerning cooperation and science diplo-
decision-making. (RYABININ et al., 2019). macy in the context of blue economy are.
Thus, science diplomacy and cooperation The discourse around the Blue Economy
efforts deserve the necessary attention so has been promoted as something benefi-
as to contribute to a more sustainable fu- cial, as a common good for all. However,
ture for the ocean. several countries have adopted different
Haas (1992) argues that the diffusion concepts for the Blue Economy based on
of new ideas and information is one of national interests and the importance that
the factors that can lead to new patterns marine ecosystem services have for the
of behavior, being a necessary determi- economy of that country (PEREIRA, 2020).
nant of the effectiveness of internation- An inflection point in all the concepts ad-
al political cooperation. Furthermore, for dressed is the need to promote develop-
Haas (2015), three main conditions can ment in a sustainable way, which in itself
contribute to the successful institutional requires levels of cooperation where sci-
management of environmental challeng- ence and diplomacy significantly interact
es. First, government concerns should (POLEJACK, 2021).
be high enough to mobilize states to the Thus, cooperation and science diplo-
point of making already scarce resources macy support and encourage good gov-
available to solve a given environmental ernance, which, among other principles,
problem. Second, common, and trans- includes the existence of a a legal frame-
boundary environmental problems cannot work, with a clear transparency of pow-
be effectively resolved without compliance ers and responsibilities with regard to
in which states make commitments they the management of areas and resources;
are able to fulfill and honor. And, finally, guaranteeing public participation, access
that states have the political and admin- to information and transparency through-
istrative capacity to make the necessary out the public policy cycle; forecasting,
domestic adjustments for the implemen- monitoring and inspection of instruments
tation of the agreement. related to resource management; the exis-
Also for Haas and Stevens (2011), tence of equity and inclusion; the ability to
knowledge operates and changes behav- deal with emergencies and the consistency
ior when organized and conveyed in a way of decisions between different institutions
that policymakers can understand and (OLIVEIRA et al., 2022) (Figure 1).
Ocean Governance, Cooperation and Diplomacy 141